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Fossil rain suggests the atmosphere 2.7 billion years ago boasted a hydrocarbon haze
By David Biello
?|
March 28, 2012?|
FOSSIL RAIN: The imprints of fossil raindrops from 2.7 billion years ago reveal details of the early Earth's atmosphere.Image: Courtesy of Sanjoy Som
Some 2.7 billion years ago in what is now Omdraaisvlei farm near Prieska, South Africa, a brief storm dropped mild rain on a new layer of ash laid down by a recent volcanic eruption (not unlike ash from the 2010 Eyjafjallaj?kull eruption in Iceland) forming tiny craters. Additional ash subsequently buried the craters and, over eons, hardened to become rock known as tuff. Closer to the present, other rainstorms eroded the overlying tuff, exposing a fossil record of raindrops from the Archean eon, and may now have revealed the density of early Earth's atmosphere.
By scanning with lasers the craters created by ancient raindrops?and comparing the indentations with those made by water drops sprinkled onto a layer of similar ash today?physicist Sanjoy Som of the University of Washington in Seattle and his colleagues have derived a measurement of the pressure exerted by the primitive atmosphere. The scientists report in Nature on March 29 that the ancient air could not have been much denser than the present atmosphere?and, in fact, may have been much less so. (Scientific American is part of Nature Publishing Group.)
"Air pressure 2.7 billion years ago was at most twice present levels, and more likely no higher than at present," Som explains. The key to that determination is raindrop size. Back in 1851 pioneering geologist Charles Lyell?suggested that measuring the fossilized indentations of raindrops might reveal details about the ancient atmosphere. These mini-craters are formed based on the size and speed of ancient raindrops.?Because the atmosphere drags on each drop, constraining the speed of its descent based on its size, if one could determine an ancient raindrop's size, one could determine how thick the atmosphere likely was.
The largest raindrop ever measured in modern times was 6.8 millimeters around, Som notes, which is also the theoretical limit; larger raindrops break apart. Because the laws of physics were likely the same in the distant past, this suggests that raindrops were no bigger in the Archean and puts an upper limit how big the ancient drops could have been. Plus, such raindrops are exceedingly rare in modern storms?and tend to fall in powerful downpours, which in the Archean would have been more likely to have washed ash away rather than form craters that could be fossilized.
To determine the size of the ancient droplets, Som and his colleagues compared the fossilized imprints with the craters that formed when they released various-size droplets from 27 meters above similar ash taken from the 2010 Eyjafjallaj?kull eruption in Iceland as well as from Hawaii. They then turned these modern craters to "rock" "using hair spray and low-viscosity liquid urethane plastic." Based on the comparisons, they concluded that the size of ancient droplets fell in the range of 3.8 to 5.3 millimeters.
Plugging those numbers into the mathematical relationship between raindrop size, speed and atmospheric density suggests that the early Earth's atmosphere exerted at most twice as much pressure as the present day atmosphere?assuming raindrops of the maximum size and speed created the craters?and more likely was roughly the same or as little as half present pressure.
A better understanding of the properties of Archean Earth's atmosphere may help explain what's known as the "faint young sun" paradox. Billions of years ago, the sun emitted less radiation, roughly 85 percent of its present output, and therefore heated the planet less. Yet, the fossil records suggest abundant liquid water and other signs of a warm, "clement" climate, as Som and colleagues noted in the analysis. The simplest explanation for this is that Earth simply boasted an atmosphere thick with greenhouse gases. "The sky was probably hazy," from the gases, Som says, in addition to being ruled by a fainter sun that passed across the sky more quickly because Earth rotated faster then. Plus, the atmosphere lacked a significant quantity of oxygen (because there were no plants), potentially lightening the atmospheric pressure. "Earth back then looked nothing like it does today."
Today I would have loved to share some gardening with you outside. ?We used to garden together in our family home before you were taken from me by your mother and you would love to water the plants. ?You were an expert and I remember eating the?cantaloupe?with you that you watered almost every morning for months. ?Your great grandfather Eugene Hillman and your grandfather Larry Hillman enjoyed their kitchen gardens as well. ?I remember helping both of them with their gardens and spending quality long term time with them while we were doing it. ?I wish that you were able to spend this quality time with me. ?I remember that Eugene would grow many different types of root and leafy?vegetables in the Seattle area and Larry was excellent at growing many?raspberries in Suquamish.
I also want you to know that yesterday, your mothers lawyer said that I felt your mother is trashy. ?She may have grown up in a lower socioeconomic industrial neighborhood in Motherwell, I believe she continues to make harmful decisions about your life by keeping you from the people who you love and need to be with, I know she does not have a lot of education, I do believe some of her friends abuse their kids and others around them, but I do not think your mother is trash. ?I lived with her for many years, I choose to get engaged to her, take her on a helicopter flight, get married to her, take her on a honey moon, and I choose to have you with her. ?I thought that she was a wonderful person who would be a great mother to you. ?I just think she has made a horrible decision to abduct you and continue to hide you from your own father. ?It is no?surprise?that a lawyer who could not even remember his own business cards to give to the court clerk, and a lawyer that can not even spell your name correctly (or his client?s name), would say something this unprofessional and obviously untrue in court.
I only went to court to help you because I was not able to convince your mother to help you spend quality long term time with me after months of trying to work with her. ?You were being bounced around from place to place with people who do abuse their children and I wanted to help you. ?Your mother stole the passports and many other items when she left and said that she was going to take you to the UK, Florida, and other places with out me. ?The court system did give you a few days with me but it has not helped you spend long term time with your parents like a friend and others said it would after 8 months of your money, time, and sacrifice.
Your mother?s lawyer, William (Bill) Gamble, also said that he wanted to ?work something out? but even though I call and message your mother from time to time, I do not receive any communication back. ?I want you to know that working things out involves communication and?negotiation. ?This silent treatment and cold shoulder does not help to come to an agreement that will help you and your family. ??Digging in? and causing harm to your child by abducting and alienating them is child abuse and it is not solved by continuing?to do the same thing. ?Spending your money on unnecessary and unprofessional lawyers, getting convinced to file for divorce, and letting other people who are taking your money make decisions for you is not a smart thing to do at all. ?If someone wants to work something out they need to contact the other party, answer questions, ask questions, and come to a reasonable agreement that works for everyone. ?In your case it would be an agreement that helps you to become healthy and spend time with your family.
I want you to know to be patient but if something is not working you can always be creative and try something new. ?Never give up on your problem though and your problem is that you have not been able to spend long term time with your family like you need to for your own personal development. ?I love you, I will be with you for quality long term time, and my door and my life is open to you.
Does ?spirituality? bridge the hole in between spiritual dogma and atheism? Is it the golden point out in between an all strong dictatorial tremendous presently being that creates very good and evil, demands sacrifice and unquestioning obedience and the fully mechanistic perception of the atheist? Can the 2 even be reconciled?
We are all acquainted with non secular dogma. The Judeo-Christian, Islamic traditions have dominated spiritual thought for thousands of years. At the core of all 3 is a brilliant deity that calls for worship, punishes the unfaithful, and has no situation with each declaring the other as inferior and even evil. A single has savior who died for their sins; a single has a savior however to come; and the opposite says stay a life by the principles and you may be rewarded later. There is a customary assumption in these religions that people are sinners and are doomed to everlasting punishment by an all loving god. All fairly foolish. It might be simple to extol the absurdity of most religions. And, it is simple to see how a rational, contemplating man or lady would have concerns with spiritual hypocrisy and their history of blood and violence.
On the other aspect of the coin, we?ve got atheism. Typically, atheists don?t think about in a god or gods, shun any notion of the supernatural and place their faith in goal, science, humanism and rationality. Basically, atheism signifies, ?with out god.? However, are the options solely god (s) and no gods?
The answer is that there is a totally different alternative; spirituality. Yes, there?s a big distinction among presently being spiritual and spiritual. It?s critical to state that spirituality has been throughout lengthier than any religion; it?s as aged as humanity. Rooted in historic mysticism from Chaldea, Egypt and found in every civilization, spirituality was centered within the notion of gnosis, figuring out. For spirituality, there isn?t a set doctrine, no dogma and no institution striving for self-perpetuation. Spirituality is a idea, a perception based upon personal enlightenment. What is thrilling is that even despite the fact that spirituality is based totally upon individual epiphany, it consists of a frequent thread that can be identified in the mystical teachings of all cultures; it has a universal commonality (perhaps Jung is at perform proper here).
In analyzing the literature of mystical teachings, which all as effectively normally grew to turn into perverted into religions, ?some? of the widespread threads include: a perception in an all pervasive common intelligence; all factors are alive; all points are related, really; common intelligence thinks the manifest world into existence and all bigger levels of consciousness play an ongoing component in this development; actuality is an phantasm and is totally different from actuality; we are what we assume; there isn?t any these sorts of matter as great and evil warring for humanity?s soul; there isn?t a dying; way of life regularly seeks to precise by itself and evolves into increased ranges of consciousness; there is no such thing as a deity demanding servitude and no deity that condemns, tortures or punishes; all that ever was, is and will likely be, is here, now; while there are balancing forces within the universes, these forces are nether superior or unfavorable; expertise is attainable by way of instinct and meditation; the universe is generally goal; all components transfer in cycles that spiral ever upward; and all issues are possible. Regardless of these and other shared concepts, there is no church primarily based upon these rules. There are groups, orders, brotherhoods and societies which have shaped to educate these concepts, but none hunt down to dominate, condemn, proselytize, or warfare with other individuals about ideology. For more information about ?mike fuljenz?, you need to go to: mike fuljenz Considerably of what?s believed, or considerably identified, by those that have embarked upon a religious path is, oddly sufficient, primarily based in science and reasoning. Is that this the bridge between dogma and atheism? It may well be. Lots of scientists have expounded mystical/religious tips. Galileo, Newton, Descartes, and Einstein had distinct non secular views on the character of the universe. And proper now, the breakthroughs and discoveries in quantum physics are heading instantly down the religious route. The circle is closing. From speedy data, to skepticism, to discovery and back; scientific considered is revealing as right, what mystics taught in historic instances.
So what did individuals like Heisenberg and Bohr and different folks say in regards to the universe. The initially tenet is that the supplies-objective universe isn?t true, it?s an illusion. The ideas brings actuality into existence by means of observation. Genuinely, the universe is an interconnected sea of vitality that solely can tackle substance when it?s noticed. The subjective mind brings the goal mind into what we name reality, and however, it has no impartial existence; the observer and the seen are one particular. Quantum physics tells us that electrons may be in two locations at once and that they are waves of power that only get on bodily existence after we seem for them. Primarily, the material planet has no elementary existence. Until we low value quantum physics as ?hum bug,? we have now science telling us that people who base their actuality on the senses are gravely in error. There?s considerable investigation and analysis on this topic and if would behoove a seeker to Google the matter, ?mysticism and quantum physics.? This is not meant to be an in depth look at of the matter, but relatively a piece that raises the query for different people to ponder.
If the brain brings actuality into existence, the query that must be answered is what thoughts introduced the first matter,? accident insurance electrons, atoms, molecules, planets, suns and galaxies into existence? Does quantum physics ascribe this to deity? I consider that the answer is, ?not yet?, however it?s the logical conclusion. Quantum physics dismisses the notion that our actuality is the consequence of risk; that existence was a lark that emerged from some kind of chemical soup; and, that we are the whim of pure forces which are beyond our handle. The ability of imagined as ?the? stress that shapes our globe is rising if efficacy. We have now witnessed the facility of the ideas to get well, and that ideas do, certainly, generate our lives and the way in which we reside it. We all know now that every one factors are power. Concepts are also vitality that shapes the observable planet. Vitality can?t be destroyed. The underlying energy that varieties the basis of the universe is neutral; meaning, it is neither excellent nor poor, it simply is. Time can also be an illusion and that it might even be achievable to travel into the past or observe the long run. Does this not sound like, ?all that ever was, is and can be? is right right here now?
Though it?s uncomplicated to grasp the pattern in the denial of a brilliant at the moment being in a white gown and beard calling the images within the universe, it must also be simple to grasp that science is bringing us nearer to the notion that there is one factor, some type of increased consciousness, that?s developing and exploring the infinite potential of lifestyle. It really must also be distinct that considering that we, as individuals, have the electrical power to alter actuality, there is almost certainly a factor that transcends our consciousness, one thing that, possibly, we specific in our ever day lives. The mystics are fond of the phrase, ?as above, so beneath and as beneath, so over.? Simply, the microcosm, the small, is solely an expression of the macrocosm, the large. The atom and the galaxy are a person, and what?s right of a single, is real of the other.
Possibly atheists who genuinely observe the rising understanding in science will come across solace that their rational pondering has really verified the notion that consciousness is the guiding drive of the manifest universe. They are correct, in my brain, that there isn?t a single deity making day- to-day decisions about salvation, or what it?ll do subsequent to change the supplies earth. There is no such thing as a deity(ies) to be worshiped or that demand sacrifice. The query is, are they ready to fully grasp that deity is the All and that proper right here truly isn?t any put the place deity begins or ends. It?s the sea of possible wave power, of which we are all a portion, ready to co-develop the upcoming chapter in evolution.
I like synchronicity. When I completed this report I obtained an fascinating email. In it, it talked of the operates of Hawking, Bekenstein, Susskind and Maldacena. It?s premise was that, ?The materialistic paradigm is ineffective and buried.? It went on to talk concerning the Holographic Principle as described in Michael Talbot?s guide and within the introduction to the information it says, ?Set another means, there is proof to advise that our whole world and every little factor in it ? from snowflakes to maple timber to falling stars and spinning electrons ? are also solely ghostly photographs, projections from a stage of reality so past our very personal it?s virtually past the two space and time.? Once more, the question is begged, who or what tasks the Universe? As we transfer to a brand new 2012 paradigm, it?s distinct that the premise of the ?previous world? is collapsing. We are accustomed to the videos that place forth the notion that magic died in historic days simply because men and women stopped believing in it. Now we?re seeing that purchaser economics, earlier religious dogma and the materialistic concept of society are passing simply because, no a single believes it any more. The energy of the Universal head and all of its expressions, us incorporated, is producing a new reality; one explicit that finds the ?golden mean? involving the extremes. This strategy may well appear chaotic. Witness worldwide climate alter, political disruptions, non secular strife, sicknesses and what some are erroneously labeling the ?finish instances.? Ye of minor faith! From this chaos will emerge a new actuality, a new stability and a brand new harmony and new reconciliation. Spirituality ? The Bridge In between Dogma and Atheism
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This post is written by Nicholas Lee 17
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We're big fans of Samsung's work and the prevailing feeling is that the Galaxy Tab 8.9 is the pinnacle of the family. The original 7-incher was too expensive and ran Android 2.2, so we were delighted to see the revamped edition running Honeycomb and costing a very reasonable $400 (it's even cheaper now). In our review, we couldn't find too much wrong with the device, in fact it's on a par with the 8.9, just a little bit smaller. But you, our friends out there, have had three or four months of constant use with this slate now, so how do you feel about it over the long-term? Does the slightly weaker screen resolution get you down? Do you wish you could make calls from it? Do you long for an S-Pen enabled edition? In a world chock-full of Samsung slates, what would you do to make this one the most desirable?
Materials inspired by Mother Nature: A 1-pound boat that could float 1,000 poundsPublic release date: 25-Mar-2012 [ | E-mail | Share ]
Contact: Michael Bernstein
m_bernstein@acs.org
619-525-6268 (March 23-28, San Diego Press Center)
202-872-6042
Michael Woods
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619-525-6268 (March 23-28, San Diego Press Center)
202-872-6293
American Chemical Society
SAN DIEGO, March 25, 2012 Combining the secrets that enable water striders to walk on water and give wood its lightness and great strength has yielded an amazing new material so buoyant that, in everyday terms, a boat made from 1 pound of the substance could carry five kitchen refrigerators, about 1,000 pounds.
One of the lightest solid substances in the world, which is also sustainable, it was among the topics of a symposium here today at the 243rd National Meeting & Exposition of the American Chemical Society, the world's largest scientific society. The symposium focused on an emerging field called biomimetics, in which scientists literally take inspiration from Mother Nature, probing and adapting biological systems in plants and animals for use in medicine, industry and other fields.
Olli Ikkala, Ph.D., described the new buoyant material, engineered to mimic the water strider's long, thin feet and made from an "aerogel" composed of the tiny nano-fibrils from the cellulose in plants. Aerogels are so light that some of them are denoted as "solid smoke." The nanocellulose aerogels also have remarkable mechanical properties and are flexible.
"These materials have really spectacular properties that could be used in practical ways," said Ikkala. He is with Helsinki University of Technology in Espoo, Finland. Potential applications range from cleaning up oil spills to helping create such products as sensors for detecting environmental pollution, miniaturized military robots, and even children's toys and super-buoyant beach floats.
Ikkala's presentation was among almost two dozen reports in the symposium titled, "Cellulose-Based Biomimetic and Biomedical Materials," that focused on the use of specially processed cellulose in the design and engineering of materials modeled after biological systems. Cellulose consists of long chains of the sugar glucose linked together into a polymer, a natural plasticlike material. Cellulose gives wood its remarkable strength and is the main component of plant stems, leaves and roots. Traditionally, cellulose's main commercial uses have been in producing paper and textiles cotton being a pure form of cellulose. But development of a highly processed form of cellulose, termed nanocellulose, has expanded those applications and sparked intense scientific research. Nanocellulose consists of the fibrils of nanoscale diameters so small that 50,000 would fit across the width of the period at the end of this sentence.
"We are in the middle of a Golden Age, in which a clearer understanding of the forms and functions of cellulose architectures in biological systems is promoting the evolution of advanced materials," said Harry Brumer, Ph.D., of Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver. He was a co-organizer of the symposium with J. Vincent Edwards, Ph.D., a research chemist with the Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture in New Orleans, Louisiana. "This session on cellulose-based biomimetic and biomedical materials is really very timely due to the sustained and growing interest in the use of cellulose, particularly nanoscale cellulose, in biomaterials."
Ikkala pointed out that cellulose is the most abundant polymer on Earth, a renewable and sustainable raw material that could be used in many new ways. In addition, nanocellulose promises advanced structural materials similar to metals, such as high-tech spun fibers and films.
"It can be of great potential value in helping the world shift to materials that do not require petroleum for manufacture," Ikkala explained. "The use of wood-based cellulose does not influence the food supply or prices, like corn or other crops. We are really delighted to see how cellulose is moving beyond traditional applications, such as paper and textiles, and finding new high-tech applications."
One application was in Ikkala's so-called "nanocellulose carriers" that have such great buoyance. In developing the new material, Ikkala's team turned nanocellulose into an aerogel. Aerogels can be made from a variety of materials, even the silica in beach sand, and some are only a few times denser than air itself. By one estimate, if Michelangelo's famous statue David were made out of an aerogel rather than marble, it would be less than 5 pounds.
The team incorporated into the nanocellulose aerogel features that enable the water strider to walk on water. The material is not only highly buoyant, but is capable of absorbing huge amounts of oil, opening the way for potential use in cleaning up oil spills. The material would float on the surface, absorbing the oil without sinking. Clean-up workers, then, could retrieve it and recover the oil.
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Abstracts from other presentations in the symposium appear below.
Native cellulose nanofibers: From biomimetic nanocomposites to functionalized gel spun fibers and functional aerogels Olli Ikkala1 , Professor, PhD, Aalto University, P.O. Box 5100, Espoo, Finland, FIN-02015, Finland , 358-9-470 23154, olli.ikkala@aalto.fi
Native cellulose nanofibers and whiskers attract interest even beyond the traditional cellulose community due to their mechanical properties, availability and sustainability. We describe biomimetic nanocomposites with aligned self-assemblies combining nanocellulose with nanoclays, polymers, block copolymer, or graphene, allowing exciting mechanical properties. Functional ductile and even flexible aerogels are presented, combining superhydrophobicity, superoleophobicity, oil-spill absorption, photocatalytics, optically switchable water absorption, sensing, and antimicrobial properties. Finally mechanically excellent fibers are gel-spun and functionalized for electric, magnetic, optical and drug-release properties.
Evaluation of skin tissue repair materials from bacterial cellulose Lina Fu1 , Miss, Huazhong University of Science & Technology, College of Life Science & Technology, 1037 Luoyu Road, Wuhan, Hubei, 430074, China , 86-18971560696, runa0325@gmail.com
Bacterial cellulose (BC) has been reported as the materials in the tissue engineering fields, such as skin, bone, vascular and cartilage tissue engineering. Exploitation of the skin substitutes and modern wound dressing materials by using BC has attracted much attention. A skin tissue repair materials based on BC have been biosynthesized by Gluconacetobacter xylinus. The nano-composites of BC and chitosan form a cohesive gel structure, and the cell toxicity of the composite is excellent. Unlike other groups, which showed more inflammatory behavior, the inflammatory cells of the BC group were mainly polymorph-nuclear and showed few lymphocytes. The BC skin tissue repair material has an obviously curative effect in promoting the healing of epithelial tissue and reducing inflammation. With its superior mechanical properties, and the excellent biocompatibility, these skin tissue repair materials based on BC have great promise and potential for wound healing and very high clinical value.
Nature-based bioactive biomaterials: Current results in development and properties of small-diameter blood vessels made of biodesigned cellulose Dieter O. Klemm1 , Prof. Dr., PhD, Polymet Jena Association, Cellulose R&D, Wildenbruchstr. 15, Jena, Thuringia, 07745, Germany , +49-3641-54 8281, Dieter.Klemm@uni-jena.de
To develop novel types of small-diameter blood vessels, the supramolecular fiber network structure and the dimension of tubular hydrogels from biodesigned cellulose (BC) are specifically created. This succeeds directly during its biotechnological fabrication from dextrose using Gluconacetobacter strains and a matrix-reservoir technology. BC tubes with a length of 100 mm and an inner diameter of 4.0-5.0 mm were used to replace the carotid arteries of 10 sheep over a period of 3 month. The grafts have been analyzed using Doppler ultrasonography, extracellular matrix (ECM) stains, and immunostaining. The aim was to get further insights into the interaction of the BC with blood components and living cells, mainly into a) technical feasibility, b) functional in-vivo performance, c) ability of providing a scaffold for the neoformation of a vascular wall, and d) their proinflammatory potential.
Regioselective synthesis of bioactive cellulose derivatives Kevin J Edgar1 , Professor, Virginia Tech, Department of Wood Science and Forest Products, 230 Cheatham Hall, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, United States , 540-231-0674, 540-231-8172, kjedgar@vt.edu
Regioselective modification is a crucial frontier in polysaccharide chemistry. Regioselective synthesis of cellulose derivatives can provide critical understanding of structure-property relationships, analytical characteristics, and biological activity as they relate to polysaccharide nanostructure. We report in this presentation on development of novel synthetic methods for the synthesis of regioselectively modified cellulose derivatives, including 6-amino functionalized cellulose derivatives, some of which have considerable promise in drug delivery by enhancing drug solubility, in nucleic acid delivery by formation of polyelectrolyte complexes, and in tissue engineering by interacting with proteins. We will report on both new methods and new materials that have general promise for enhancing control and understanding of cellulose derivative regiochemistry.
Electrospun fibers of regenerated cellulose for biomedical applications: Formation, characterization, and in vitro biocompatibilty of scaffolds Scott Renneckar1 , Associate Professor, PhD, 230 Cheatham Hall, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, United States , 540-231-7100, srenneck@vt.edu
Interest to use cellulosics as polymers in tissue engineering has expanded its potential applications in the biomedical field. Electrospun cellulose acetate, regenerated to cellulose, was transformed into tissue engineering scaffolds with various structures and evaluated as a mimic to native extracellular matrix (ECM) in terms of porosity and fiber alignment. Electrospinning parameters, such as solvent and solution flow rate, were critical variables that influenced the ability of the scaffolding architectures to be maintained during the regeneration process. Laser micro-ablation of the cellulose acetate allowed the controlled design of microporosity to impact cell and nutrient diffusion. Additionally, cytotoxicity tests (minimal essential media elution test and agar overlay), indicate these electrospun scaffolds do not show any morphological changes to cells. These aspects, combined with the toolkit of polysaccharide chemistry for surface modification to enhance bioactivity, suggest that electrospun cellulose acetate is a robust platform for use as a tissue engineering scaffold.
New materials from nanocrystalline cellulose Mark MacLachlan1 , University of British Columbia, Department of Chemistry, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z1, Canada , 604-822-3070, mmaclach@chem.ubc.ca
Nanocrystalline cellulose (NCC) is available from the acid-catalyzed degradation of cellulosic materials. NCC is composed of cylindrical crystallites with diameters of ca. 5-10 nm and large aspect ratios. This form of cellulose has intriguing properties, including its ability to form a chiral nematic structure. By using the chiral nematic organization of NCC as a template, we have been able to create highly porous silica films and carbon films with chiral nematic organization.1,2 These materials are iridescent and their structures mimic the shells of jewel beetles. In this paper, I will describe our recent efforts to use NCC to create new materials with interesting optical properties.
Factors influencing chiral nematic pitch and texture of cellulose nanocrystal films Derek G Gray1 , McGill University, Department of Chemistry, Pulp and Paper Building, 3420 University Street, Montreal, QC, H3A 2A7, Canada , 1-514-398-6182, derek.gray@mcgill.ca
Appropriately stabilized cellulose nanocrystal (NCC) suspensions in water form chiral nematic liquid crystalline phases above some critical concentration. In the absence of added electrolye, the chiral nematic pitch of such suspensions is longer than that of visible light. Films prepared by evaporation from the suspensions also often display the characteristic fingerprint patterns characteristic of long-pitch chiral nematic phases, but the pitch values can be shifted into the visible range by adding small quantities of electrolyte to the evaporating suspension. The factors that control the final pitch have been the subject of some confusion. While still not well understood, it is clear that at high nanocrystal concentrations and in solid films, the pitch is not simply a reversible function of nanocrystal concentration. We examine some of the factors that control the pitch and liquid crystal texture during the drying of chiral nematic NCC films.
Novel cellulose-based materials for safe and efficient wound treatment Karin Stana-Kleinschek1,2 , prof., PhD, University of Maribor, Faculty of mechanical engineering, Smetanova ulica 17, Maribor, tajerska, 2000, Slovenia , + 386 2 220 7881, karin.stana@uni-mb.si
Optimal wound healing requires a moist and bacteria-free environment. Successful healing depends on the correlation between moisture, the host materials' mechanical properties and the function of active ingredients. We present novel preparation methods for cellulose-based dressings, exhibiting safe antimicrobial activity, while maintaining desired moisture. Safety is assured either by irreversible binding of silver nanoparticles (SND) or a plasma-polymerization (PP) derived surface layer. SNDs were bound in situ by using a starch-based precipitation technique or by sol-gel derived methods, while a mixture of hexane and ammonia was used for deposition of an antimicrobial surface film using PP. PP was performed in a modified GEC cell by utilizing inductive coupled radio-frequency plasma. All materials were characterized by vibrational spectroscopy and XPS, acid orange adsorption studies and potentiometric titrations. Modified cellulose-based materials were proven safe, while in vitro testing revealed simultaneous antimicrobial efficiency against most of typical wounds microorganisms.
Design and synthesis of multivalent cellulose nanocrystals carrying tyrosine sulfate mimetic ligands Justin O. Zoppe1 , PhD, Aalto University, Department of Biotechnology and Chemical Technology, PO Box 16100, Aalto, Southern Finland, FI-00076, Finland , +358 94 702 2864, justin.zoppe@aalto.fi
Rod-like cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) offer unique opportunities for the design of therapeutic agents given the established biocompatibility of cellulose and historical use of cellulosic materials in the pharmaceutical industry. Having a large specific surface area, multivalent displays of target-specific ligands can be achieved via covalent conjugation to nanocrystals. In the present study, CNCs produced from sulfuric acid hydrolysis were utilized as a substrate for the conjugation of tyrosine sulfate mimetic ligands. To this end, CNC surface hydroxyl residues were functionalized with small molecule ligands via isothiocyanate chemistry. To increase ligand mobility, oligo(ethylene glycol) molecular spacers were introduced first by activation of CNC surface hydroxyls in aqueous or organic media by epichlorohydrin or 1,1'-carbonyldiimidazole, respectively. The extent of surface functionalization was determined by TGA and XPS. Chemical and topographical information were accessed via ATR-FTIR Spectroscopy and AFM. The potential applications of tyrosine sulfate mimetics are presented and discussed.
Engineering the viscoelasticity of bacterial cellulose/fibrin nanocomposites for artificial blood vessel applications Elvie E. Brown1 , P.O. Box 64180, Pullman, WA, United States , 509-302-0076, ebrown007@gmail.com
Bacterial cellulose (BC) and fibrin are potential materials for artificial blood vessel (BV) applications. Yet each has shortcomings with their mechanical properties when compared to the native BV. To address the shortcomings, BC/fibrin composites with varied compositions were produced. The BC/fibrin composites were further treated with glutaraldehyde in order to crosslink the polymers and allow better match of the mechanical properties with those of native BV. Tensile and viscoelastic properties of the composites were determined from tensile static tests and cyclic creep tests. Glutaraldehyde-treated BC/fibrin composites exhibited comparable tensile strength and modulus with reference small-diameter BV. The cyclic creep test also indicated that glutaraldehyde-treated composites had comparable time-dependent viscoelastic behavior with native BV. A long strain hardening plateau was induced by glutaraldehyde treatment which resembled the stress-strain response of native BV. Covalent bonding between BC and fibrin occurred via glutaraldehyde, affording mechanical properties comparable to the native small BV.
Lysostaphin-immobilized electrospun cellulose fibers with antistaphylococcal activity for wound healing applications Jianjun Miao1,6,7 , Postdoctoral Scholar, PhD, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, 110 8th St, room 4005 Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Troy, NY, 12180, United States , 518-276-3404, jianjunmiao78@yahoo.com
With the emergence of "super bacteria" that are resistant to antibiotics, e.g., methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, novel antimicrobial therapies are needed to prevent associated hospitalizations and deaths. Bacteriophages and bacteria use cell lytic enzymes to kill host and competing bacteria, respectively, in natural environments. Taking inspiration from nature, we have employed a cell lytic enzyme, lysostaphin (Lst), with specific bactericidal activity against S. aureus, to generate anti-infective bandages. Lst was immobilized onto submicron fibers generated by electrospinning homogeneous solutions of cellulose, cellulose chitosan, and cellulose poly(methylmethacrylate) (PMMA) from 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium acetate ([EMIM][OAc]). The cellulose fibers were chemically treated to generate aldehyde groups for the covalent immobilization of Lst. The resulting Lst-functionalized cellulose fibers were processed to obtain bandage preparations that showed activity against S. aureus in an in vitro skin model with low cytotoxicity towards keratinocytes, suggesting good biocompatibility for these materials as antimicrobial matrices in wound healing applications.
Development of a cellulosic responsive "living" membrane Bruce Panilaitis1 , PhD, Tufts University, Biomedical Engineering, 4 Colby Street, Medford, MA, 02155, United States , 617-627-3607, bruce.panilaitis@tufts.edu
While significant advances have been made in the field of pathogen and chemical detection, these methods often require sophisticated equipment and dedicated laboratory space that is not available in forward operating theaters. To that end, our work focuses on the development of a "Living Membrane" system based on recombinant bacterial strains entrapped in cellulosic membranes, making them resistant to environmental degradation, persistent for short or long periods of time, and housing a built in recording record over time. In this report, we discuss the incorporation of stimuli-sensitive E. coli in to the bacterial cellulose membrane, their distribution, viability, and sensitivity to control stimuli. In addition, we present the construction of a ToxR-based operon for the detection and reporting of specific stimuli. This operon includes the genetic amplifier loop based on the LuxR system. The current report demonstrates the proof of concept of this strategy, and will expand upon continued goals for pathogen and chemical detection.
Bioprinting of 3D porous nanocellulose scaffolds for tissue engineering and organ regeneration Paul Gatenholm1 , Professor, Wallenberg Wood Science Center, Chalmers, Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Kemigarden 4, Goteborg, V. Gotaland, SE41296, Sweden , 46317723407, paul.gatenholm@chalmers.se
Nanocellulose is a promising biocompatible hydrogel like nano-biomaterial with potential uses in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. Biomaterial scaffolds for tissue engineering require precise control of porosity, pore size, and pore interconnectivity. Control of scaffold architecture is crucial to promote cell migration, cell attachment, cell proliferation and cell differentiation. 3D macroporous nanocellulose scaffolds, produced by unique biofabrication process using porogens incorporated in the cultivation step, have shown ability to attract smooth muscle cells, endothelial cells, chondrocytes of various origins, urethral cells and osteoprogenitor cells. We have developed bioprinter which is able to produce 3D porous nanocellulose scaffolds with large size and unique architecture. Surface modifications have been applied to enhance cell adhesion and cell differentiation. In this study we have focused on use of 3D porous Nanocellulose scaffolds for stem cell differentiation into osteogenic and chondral lineages.
Antimicrobial activity of biocomposites based on bacterial cellulose and chitin nanoparticles Qi Zhou2,3 , Royal Institute of Technology, School of Biotechnology, AlbaNova University Centre, Stockholm, SE, 106 91, Sweden , +46-8-55378383, +46-8-55378468, qi@kth.se
Bacteria from the genus Acetobacter represent interesting systems for the design and low-energy fabrication of biomimetic cellulose-based nanocomposites. These microorganisms extruded bacterial cellulose (BC) has the advantage over plant cellulose of being virtually pure and free of any non-cellulosic polymer. Compared to cellulose nanofibers from wood, ribbons that consist of aggregates of BC fibrils can be modified during biosynthesis by the simple addition of water-soluble polymers into the culture medium of the bacterium. Therefore, cultures of Acetobacter represent an ideal biosynthetic system to produce high-strength and functional cellulosic materials with a biomimetic nanostructure. Herein, we report a new series of biocomposites prepared by an in-situ growth process through the addition of chitin nanoparticles into the Acetobacter aceti culture medium. Chitin nanoparticles that were prepared by acid hydrolysis, partially deacetylation, and TEMPO-mediated oxidation are used in this study. The structure and antimicrobial activity of the new BC/chitin nanoparticles biocomposites are investigated.
Production of bacterial cellulose tubes with Gluconacetobacter xylinus by a novel method Michael Hofinger1 , M.Sc., Bioregeneration GmbH, Eichenstrae 15, Neuried, Bavaria, 82061, Germany , 017664159008, +49 89 327 29174, hofinger@bioregeneration.com
Bacterial cellulose shows great promise for applications in the biomedical area. The biopolymer is non-degradable, can be steam sterilized and was shown to be highly biocompatible. Due to low thrombogenicity and high mechanical stability, bacterial cellulose tubes may even be suitable for small diameter blood vessel replacement. We present a novel method utilizing Gluconacetobacter xylinus to produce bacterial cellulose tubes in a reliable and reproducible way. The produced tubes show high mechanical stability. The radial stress at break and the suture pull out strength where evaluated. Tubes were shown to be homogeneous over the length. The wall of the tubes was shown to consist of radially spaced layers, thus providing a high safety margin against burst. Preliminary animal experiments were conducted in pigs. Tubes replaced a part of the arteria mesenterica superior.
Development of cellulose based biointerface for diagnostic and affinity filtration applications Hannes Orelma1 , Researcher, M.Sc. (Tech.), Aalto University, Department of Forest Products Technology, Vuorimiehentie 1, Espoo, Uusimaa, 00076, Finland , +358-50-344-1074, hannes.orelma@aalto.fi
The objective of this study was to develop new strategies for the controlled attachment of antibodies on cellulose and to optimize the surface properties for minimized non-specific binding of target molecules. The surface modification of cellulose was performed by using polysaccharide adsorption and/or chemical functionalization. Consequent attachment of antibodies was achieved either by directly conjugating them onto the functionalized cellulose or by using a specific linker protein that allowed for chemical free attachment strategy. For example, antibodies such as monoclonal anti-hemoglobin and polyclonal anti-human IgG were irreversibly attached to cellulose. Developed platforms were found to be effective on detecting specific antigens with reduced non-specific binding. XPS, QCM-D, SPR and AFM were used to characterize the main chemical, swelling and morphological features of the produced, novel biointerfaces based on the associated, derivatized cellulosic materials. Main results and possible applications for such systems will be discussed.
Bio-inspired mechanically adaptive polymer nanocomposites for biomedical implants Christoph Weder1 , PhD, University of Fribourg, Adolphe Merkle Institute, Rue de l'Ancienne Papeterie, Marly, FR, 1723, Switzerland , ++41 26 300 9465, christoph.weder@unifr.ch
With the objective to create mechanically adaptive implants, which are sufficiently rigid to allow implantation, but soften thereafter to match the stiffness of their environment, we developed a family of mechanically adaptive polymer nanocomposites. These materials are inspired by the architecture and function of the skin of sea cucumbers, which can change its stiffness on command. Our artificial nanocomposites adopt the architecture of this adaptive tissue and are comprised of soft polymer matrices and rigid cellulose nanofibers. The interactions between the nanofibers are mediated by exposure to water, which causes a dramatic modulus reduction. The new materials were used to probe the hypothesis that the formation of a glial scar, which has been identified as a problem for cortical interfacing, is related to the mechanical mismatch between the soft brain tissue and rigid cortical implants. The fabrication of implants and the results of first in-vivo studies are reported.
Cellulose based scaffolds for cartilage tissue engineering Sameer S Rahatekar1 , Dr, University of Bristol, Advanced Composite Centre for Innovation & Science, Queens Building, University Walk, Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom , 0044 777 261 5154, sameer.rahatekar@bristol.ac.uk
Cellulose is the most abundant, biocompatible polymer with low immune response. Unlike synthetic polymers, the degraded products of cellulose scaffolds are not likely to damage the tissues during regeneration. In the present work, we have studied the use of cellulose scaffold for growth of adult stem cells for cartilage tissue engineering. Cellulose scaffolds with varying mechanical properties were used to test their ability to support adult stem cells growth and differentiation. These scaffolds were analysed for levels of viable cell adhesion, and production of various differentiation and transcription markers related to chondrogenesis. The cellulose scaffolds showed good viability and proliferation of stem cells. The stem cells grown on cellulose scaffolds showed chondrogenic gene expression in presence of chondrogenic supplements such as TGF?. Our findings suggest that cellulose scaffolds hold a great potential to be used for stem cells growth and differentiation for biomedical applications, including cartilage tissue engineering.
Primary plant cell wall architecture, dynamics and mechanics Michaela Eder1 , Am Muehlenberg 1, Potsdam, Brandenburg, Germany , 0049-331-5679422, michaela.eder@mpikg.mpg.de
Plant cells are encased by a cell wall which may display a variety of architectures depending on the particular function (e.g. protection, support, transport, seed dispersal). During growth the cell is surrounded by a primary cell wall which needs to be rigid and compliant at the same time. Flexibility allows cell expansion, rigidity is required to withstand internal and external loads. Although the structures of the individual polymers forming the cell wall are well known; their synthesis, specific arrangement and bonding patterns are not completely understood. The orientation of the stiff cellulose fibrils in the softer matrix is a key factor for mechanical stability and growth anisotropy. To gain further insights we applied a combination of different methods on dark grown Arabidopsis hypocotyls of different ages: Cellulose synthesis was visualized by following the movements of CESA complexes by confocal microscopy. The arrangement of the cellulose fibrils in the wall was determined by SAXS and WAXS. Microtensile tests were performed to analyse their mechanical behaviour. The obtained results may challenge existing models that assume a gradual reorientation of cellulose fibrils during growth.
Evaluation of skin tissue repair materials from bacterial cellulose Lina Fu1 , Miss, Huazhong University of Science & Technology, College of Life Science & Technology, 1037 Luoyu Road, Wuhan, Hubei, 430074, China , 86-18971560696, runa0325@gmail.com
Bacterial cellulose (BC) has been reported as the materials in the tissue engineering fields, such as skin, bone, vascular and cartilage tissue engineering. Exploitation of the skin substitutes and modern wound dressing materials by using BC has attracted much attention. A skin tissue repair materials based on BC have been biosynthesized by Gluconacetobacter xylinus. The nano-composites of BC and chitosan form a cohesive gel structure, and the cell toxicity of the composite is excellent. Unlike other groups, which showed more inflammatory behavior, the inflammatory cells of the BC group were mainly polymorph-nuclear and showed few lymphocytes. The BC skin tissue repair material has an obviously curative effect in promoting the healing of epithelial tissue and reducing inflammation. With its superior mechanical properties, and the excellent biocompatibility, these skin tissue repair materials based on BC have great promise and potential for wound healing and very high clinical value.
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Materials inspired by Mother Nature: A 1-pound boat that could float 1,000 poundsPublic release date: 25-Mar-2012 [ | E-mail | Share ]
Contact: Michael Bernstein
m_bernstein@acs.org
619-525-6268 (March 23-28, San Diego Press Center)
202-872-6042
Michael Woods
m_woods@acs.org
619-525-6268 (March 23-28, San Diego Press Center)
202-872-6293
American Chemical Society
SAN DIEGO, March 25, 2012 Combining the secrets that enable water striders to walk on water and give wood its lightness and great strength has yielded an amazing new material so buoyant that, in everyday terms, a boat made from 1 pound of the substance could carry five kitchen refrigerators, about 1,000 pounds.
One of the lightest solid substances in the world, which is also sustainable, it was among the topics of a symposium here today at the 243rd National Meeting & Exposition of the American Chemical Society, the world's largest scientific society. The symposium focused on an emerging field called biomimetics, in which scientists literally take inspiration from Mother Nature, probing and adapting biological systems in plants and animals for use in medicine, industry and other fields.
Olli Ikkala, Ph.D., described the new buoyant material, engineered to mimic the water strider's long, thin feet and made from an "aerogel" composed of the tiny nano-fibrils from the cellulose in plants. Aerogels are so light that some of them are denoted as "solid smoke." The nanocellulose aerogels also have remarkable mechanical properties and are flexible.
"These materials have really spectacular properties that could be used in practical ways," said Ikkala. He is with Helsinki University of Technology in Espoo, Finland. Potential applications range from cleaning up oil spills to helping create such products as sensors for detecting environmental pollution, miniaturized military robots, and even children's toys and super-buoyant beach floats.
Ikkala's presentation was among almost two dozen reports in the symposium titled, "Cellulose-Based Biomimetic and Biomedical Materials," that focused on the use of specially processed cellulose in the design and engineering of materials modeled after biological systems. Cellulose consists of long chains of the sugar glucose linked together into a polymer, a natural plasticlike material. Cellulose gives wood its remarkable strength and is the main component of plant stems, leaves and roots. Traditionally, cellulose's main commercial uses have been in producing paper and textiles cotton being a pure form of cellulose. But development of a highly processed form of cellulose, termed nanocellulose, has expanded those applications and sparked intense scientific research. Nanocellulose consists of the fibrils of nanoscale diameters so small that 50,000 would fit across the width of the period at the end of this sentence.
"We are in the middle of a Golden Age, in which a clearer understanding of the forms and functions of cellulose architectures in biological systems is promoting the evolution of advanced materials," said Harry Brumer, Ph.D., of Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, Vancouver. He was a co-organizer of the symposium with J. Vincent Edwards, Ph.D., a research chemist with the Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture in New Orleans, Louisiana. "This session on cellulose-based biomimetic and biomedical materials is really very timely due to the sustained and growing interest in the use of cellulose, particularly nanoscale cellulose, in biomaterials."
Ikkala pointed out that cellulose is the most abundant polymer on Earth, a renewable and sustainable raw material that could be used in many new ways. In addition, nanocellulose promises advanced structural materials similar to metals, such as high-tech spun fibers and films.
"It can be of great potential value in helping the world shift to materials that do not require petroleum for manufacture," Ikkala explained. "The use of wood-based cellulose does not influence the food supply or prices, like corn or other crops. We are really delighted to see how cellulose is moving beyond traditional applications, such as paper and textiles, and finding new high-tech applications."
One application was in Ikkala's so-called "nanocellulose carriers" that have such great buoyance. In developing the new material, Ikkala's team turned nanocellulose into an aerogel. Aerogels can be made from a variety of materials, even the silica in beach sand, and some are only a few times denser than air itself. By one estimate, if Michelangelo's famous statue David were made out of an aerogel rather than marble, it would be less than 5 pounds.
The team incorporated into the nanocellulose aerogel features that enable the water strider to walk on water. The material is not only highly buoyant, but is capable of absorbing huge amounts of oil, opening the way for potential use in cleaning up oil spills. The material would float on the surface, absorbing the oil without sinking. Clean-up workers, then, could retrieve it and recover the oil.
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Abstracts from other presentations in the symposium appear below.
Native cellulose nanofibers: From biomimetic nanocomposites to functionalized gel spun fibers and functional aerogels Olli Ikkala1 , Professor, PhD, Aalto University, P.O. Box 5100, Espoo, Finland, FIN-02015, Finland , 358-9-470 23154, olli.ikkala@aalto.fi
Native cellulose nanofibers and whiskers attract interest even beyond the traditional cellulose community due to their mechanical properties, availability and sustainability. We describe biomimetic nanocomposites with aligned self-assemblies combining nanocellulose with nanoclays, polymers, block copolymer, or graphene, allowing exciting mechanical properties. Functional ductile and even flexible aerogels are presented, combining superhydrophobicity, superoleophobicity, oil-spill absorption, photocatalytics, optically switchable water absorption, sensing, and antimicrobial properties. Finally mechanically excellent fibers are gel-spun and functionalized for electric, magnetic, optical and drug-release properties.
Evaluation of skin tissue repair materials from bacterial cellulose Lina Fu1 , Miss, Huazhong University of Science & Technology, College of Life Science & Technology, 1037 Luoyu Road, Wuhan, Hubei, 430074, China , 86-18971560696, runa0325@gmail.com
Bacterial cellulose (BC) has been reported as the materials in the tissue engineering fields, such as skin, bone, vascular and cartilage tissue engineering. Exploitation of the skin substitutes and modern wound dressing materials by using BC has attracted much attention. A skin tissue repair materials based on BC have been biosynthesized by Gluconacetobacter xylinus. The nano-composites of BC and chitosan form a cohesive gel structure, and the cell toxicity of the composite is excellent. Unlike other groups, which showed more inflammatory behavior, the inflammatory cells of the BC group were mainly polymorph-nuclear and showed few lymphocytes. The BC skin tissue repair material has an obviously curative effect in promoting the healing of epithelial tissue and reducing inflammation. With its superior mechanical properties, and the excellent biocompatibility, these skin tissue repair materials based on BC have great promise and potential for wound healing and very high clinical value.
Nature-based bioactive biomaterials: Current results in development and properties of small-diameter blood vessels made of biodesigned cellulose Dieter O. Klemm1 , Prof. Dr., PhD, Polymet Jena Association, Cellulose R&D, Wildenbruchstr. 15, Jena, Thuringia, 07745, Germany , +49-3641-54 8281, Dieter.Klemm@uni-jena.de
To develop novel types of small-diameter blood vessels, the supramolecular fiber network structure and the dimension of tubular hydrogels from biodesigned cellulose (BC) are specifically created. This succeeds directly during its biotechnological fabrication from dextrose using Gluconacetobacter strains and a matrix-reservoir technology. BC tubes with a length of 100 mm and an inner diameter of 4.0-5.0 mm were used to replace the carotid arteries of 10 sheep over a period of 3 month. The grafts have been analyzed using Doppler ultrasonography, extracellular matrix (ECM) stains, and immunostaining. The aim was to get further insights into the interaction of the BC with blood components and living cells, mainly into a) technical feasibility, b) functional in-vivo performance, c) ability of providing a scaffold for the neoformation of a vascular wall, and d) their proinflammatory potential.
Regioselective synthesis of bioactive cellulose derivatives Kevin J Edgar1 , Professor, Virginia Tech, Department of Wood Science and Forest Products, 230 Cheatham Hall, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, United States , 540-231-0674, 540-231-8172, kjedgar@vt.edu
Regioselective modification is a crucial frontier in polysaccharide chemistry. Regioselective synthesis of cellulose derivatives can provide critical understanding of structure-property relationships, analytical characteristics, and biological activity as they relate to polysaccharide nanostructure. We report in this presentation on development of novel synthetic methods for the synthesis of regioselectively modified cellulose derivatives, including 6-amino functionalized cellulose derivatives, some of which have considerable promise in drug delivery by enhancing drug solubility, in nucleic acid delivery by formation of polyelectrolyte complexes, and in tissue engineering by interacting with proteins. We will report on both new methods and new materials that have general promise for enhancing control and understanding of cellulose derivative regiochemistry.
Electrospun fibers of regenerated cellulose for biomedical applications: Formation, characterization, and in vitro biocompatibilty of scaffolds Scott Renneckar1 , Associate Professor, PhD, 230 Cheatham Hall, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, United States , 540-231-7100, srenneck@vt.edu
Interest to use cellulosics as polymers in tissue engineering has expanded its potential applications in the biomedical field. Electrospun cellulose acetate, regenerated to cellulose, was transformed into tissue engineering scaffolds with various structures and evaluated as a mimic to native extracellular matrix (ECM) in terms of porosity and fiber alignment. Electrospinning parameters, such as solvent and solution flow rate, were critical variables that influenced the ability of the scaffolding architectures to be maintained during the regeneration process. Laser micro-ablation of the cellulose acetate allowed the controlled design of microporosity to impact cell and nutrient diffusion. Additionally, cytotoxicity tests (minimal essential media elution test and agar overlay), indicate these electrospun scaffolds do not show any morphological changes to cells. These aspects, combined with the toolkit of polysaccharide chemistry for surface modification to enhance bioactivity, suggest that electrospun cellulose acetate is a robust platform for use as a tissue engineering scaffold.
New materials from nanocrystalline cellulose Mark MacLachlan1 , University of British Columbia, Department of Chemistry, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z1, Canada , 604-822-3070, mmaclach@chem.ubc.ca
Nanocrystalline cellulose (NCC) is available from the acid-catalyzed degradation of cellulosic materials. NCC is composed of cylindrical crystallites with diameters of ca. 5-10 nm and large aspect ratios. This form of cellulose has intriguing properties, including its ability to form a chiral nematic structure. By using the chiral nematic organization of NCC as a template, we have been able to create highly porous silica films and carbon films with chiral nematic organization.1,2 These materials are iridescent and their structures mimic the shells of jewel beetles. In this paper, I will describe our recent efforts to use NCC to create new materials with interesting optical properties.
Factors influencing chiral nematic pitch and texture of cellulose nanocrystal films Derek G Gray1 , McGill University, Department of Chemistry, Pulp and Paper Building, 3420 University Street, Montreal, QC, H3A 2A7, Canada , 1-514-398-6182, derek.gray@mcgill.ca
Appropriately stabilized cellulose nanocrystal (NCC) suspensions in water form chiral nematic liquid crystalline phases above some critical concentration. In the absence of added electrolye, the chiral nematic pitch of such suspensions is longer than that of visible light. Films prepared by evaporation from the suspensions also often display the characteristic fingerprint patterns characteristic of long-pitch chiral nematic phases, but the pitch values can be shifted into the visible range by adding small quantities of electrolyte to the evaporating suspension. The factors that control the final pitch have been the subject of some confusion. While still not well understood, it is clear that at high nanocrystal concentrations and in solid films, the pitch is not simply a reversible function of nanocrystal concentration. We examine some of the factors that control the pitch and liquid crystal texture during the drying of chiral nematic NCC films.
Novel cellulose-based materials for safe and efficient wound treatment Karin Stana-Kleinschek1,2 , prof., PhD, University of Maribor, Faculty of mechanical engineering, Smetanova ulica 17, Maribor, tajerska, 2000, Slovenia , + 386 2 220 7881, karin.stana@uni-mb.si
Optimal wound healing requires a moist and bacteria-free environment. Successful healing depends on the correlation between moisture, the host materials' mechanical properties and the function of active ingredients. We present novel preparation methods for cellulose-based dressings, exhibiting safe antimicrobial activity, while maintaining desired moisture. Safety is assured either by irreversible binding of silver nanoparticles (SND) or a plasma-polymerization (PP) derived surface layer. SNDs were bound in situ by using a starch-based precipitation technique or by sol-gel derived methods, while a mixture of hexane and ammonia was used for deposition of an antimicrobial surface film using PP. PP was performed in a modified GEC cell by utilizing inductive coupled radio-frequency plasma. All materials were characterized by vibrational spectroscopy and XPS, acid orange adsorption studies and potentiometric titrations. Modified cellulose-based materials were proven safe, while in vitro testing revealed simultaneous antimicrobial efficiency against most of typical wounds microorganisms.
Design and synthesis of multivalent cellulose nanocrystals carrying tyrosine sulfate mimetic ligands Justin O. Zoppe1 , PhD, Aalto University, Department of Biotechnology and Chemical Technology, PO Box 16100, Aalto, Southern Finland, FI-00076, Finland , +358 94 702 2864, justin.zoppe@aalto.fi
Rod-like cellulose nanocrystals (CNCs) offer unique opportunities for the design of therapeutic agents given the established biocompatibility of cellulose and historical use of cellulosic materials in the pharmaceutical industry. Having a large specific surface area, multivalent displays of target-specific ligands can be achieved via covalent conjugation to nanocrystals. In the present study, CNCs produced from sulfuric acid hydrolysis were utilized as a substrate for the conjugation of tyrosine sulfate mimetic ligands. To this end, CNC surface hydroxyl residues were functionalized with small molecule ligands via isothiocyanate chemistry. To increase ligand mobility, oligo(ethylene glycol) molecular spacers were introduced first by activation of CNC surface hydroxyls in aqueous or organic media by epichlorohydrin or 1,1'-carbonyldiimidazole, respectively. The extent of surface functionalization was determined by TGA and XPS. Chemical and topographical information were accessed via ATR-FTIR Spectroscopy and AFM. The potential applications of tyrosine sulfate mimetics are presented and discussed.
Engineering the viscoelasticity of bacterial cellulose/fibrin nanocomposites for artificial blood vessel applications Elvie E. Brown1 , P.O. Box 64180, Pullman, WA, United States , 509-302-0076, ebrown007@gmail.com
Bacterial cellulose (BC) and fibrin are potential materials for artificial blood vessel (BV) applications. Yet each has shortcomings with their mechanical properties when compared to the native BV. To address the shortcomings, BC/fibrin composites with varied compositions were produced. The BC/fibrin composites were further treated with glutaraldehyde in order to crosslink the polymers and allow better match of the mechanical properties with those of native BV. Tensile and viscoelastic properties of the composites were determined from tensile static tests and cyclic creep tests. Glutaraldehyde-treated BC/fibrin composites exhibited comparable tensile strength and modulus with reference small-diameter BV. The cyclic creep test also indicated that glutaraldehyde-treated composites had comparable time-dependent viscoelastic behavior with native BV. A long strain hardening plateau was induced by glutaraldehyde treatment which resembled the stress-strain response of native BV. Covalent bonding between BC and fibrin occurred via glutaraldehyde, affording mechanical properties comparable to the native small BV.
Lysostaphin-immobilized electrospun cellulose fibers with antistaphylococcal activity for wound healing applications Jianjun Miao1,6,7 , Postdoctoral Scholar, PhD, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, 110 8th St, room 4005 Center for Biotechnology and Interdisciplinary Studies, Troy, NY, 12180, United States , 518-276-3404, jianjunmiao78@yahoo.com
With the emergence of "super bacteria" that are resistant to antibiotics, e.g., methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, novel antimicrobial therapies are needed to prevent associated hospitalizations and deaths. Bacteriophages and bacteria use cell lytic enzymes to kill host and competing bacteria, respectively, in natural environments. Taking inspiration from nature, we have employed a cell lytic enzyme, lysostaphin (Lst), with specific bactericidal activity against S. aureus, to generate anti-infective bandages. Lst was immobilized onto submicron fibers generated by electrospinning homogeneous solutions of cellulose, cellulose chitosan, and cellulose poly(methylmethacrylate) (PMMA) from 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium acetate ([EMIM][OAc]). The cellulose fibers were chemically treated to generate aldehyde groups for the covalent immobilization of Lst. The resulting Lst-functionalized cellulose fibers were processed to obtain bandage preparations that showed activity against S. aureus in an in vitro skin model with low cytotoxicity towards keratinocytes, suggesting good biocompatibility for these materials as antimicrobial matrices in wound healing applications.
Development of a cellulosic responsive "living" membrane Bruce Panilaitis1 , PhD, Tufts University, Biomedical Engineering, 4 Colby Street, Medford, MA, 02155, United States , 617-627-3607, bruce.panilaitis@tufts.edu
While significant advances have been made in the field of pathogen and chemical detection, these methods often require sophisticated equipment and dedicated laboratory space that is not available in forward operating theaters. To that end, our work focuses on the development of a "Living Membrane" system based on recombinant bacterial strains entrapped in cellulosic membranes, making them resistant to environmental degradation, persistent for short or long periods of time, and housing a built in recording record over time. In this report, we discuss the incorporation of stimuli-sensitive E. coli in to the bacterial cellulose membrane, their distribution, viability, and sensitivity to control stimuli. In addition, we present the construction of a ToxR-based operon for the detection and reporting of specific stimuli. This operon includes the genetic amplifier loop based on the LuxR system. The current report demonstrates the proof of concept of this strategy, and will expand upon continued goals for pathogen and chemical detection.
Bioprinting of 3D porous nanocellulose scaffolds for tissue engineering and organ regeneration Paul Gatenholm1 , Professor, Wallenberg Wood Science Center, Chalmers, Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Kemigarden 4, Goteborg, V. Gotaland, SE41296, Sweden , 46317723407, paul.gatenholm@chalmers.se
Nanocellulose is a promising biocompatible hydrogel like nano-biomaterial with potential uses in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. Biomaterial scaffolds for tissue engineering require precise control of porosity, pore size, and pore interconnectivity. Control of scaffold architecture is crucial to promote cell migration, cell attachment, cell proliferation and cell differentiation. 3D macroporous nanocellulose scaffolds, produced by unique biofabrication process using porogens incorporated in the cultivation step, have shown ability to attract smooth muscle cells, endothelial cells, chondrocytes of various origins, urethral cells and osteoprogenitor cells. We have developed bioprinter which is able to produce 3D porous nanocellulose scaffolds with large size and unique architecture. Surface modifications have been applied to enhance cell adhesion and cell differentiation. In this study we have focused on use of 3D porous Nanocellulose scaffolds for stem cell differentiation into osteogenic and chondral lineages.
Antimicrobial activity of biocomposites based on bacterial cellulose and chitin nanoparticles Qi Zhou2,3 , Royal Institute of Technology, School of Biotechnology, AlbaNova University Centre, Stockholm, SE, 106 91, Sweden , +46-8-55378383, +46-8-55378468, qi@kth.se
Bacteria from the genus Acetobacter represent interesting systems for the design and low-energy fabrication of biomimetic cellulose-based nanocomposites. These microorganisms extruded bacterial cellulose (BC) has the advantage over plant cellulose of being virtually pure and free of any non-cellulosic polymer. Compared to cellulose nanofibers from wood, ribbons that consist of aggregates of BC fibrils can be modified during biosynthesis by the simple addition of water-soluble polymers into the culture medium of the bacterium. Therefore, cultures of Acetobacter represent an ideal biosynthetic system to produce high-strength and functional cellulosic materials with a biomimetic nanostructure. Herein, we report a new series of biocomposites prepared by an in-situ growth process through the addition of chitin nanoparticles into the Acetobacter aceti culture medium. Chitin nanoparticles that were prepared by acid hydrolysis, partially deacetylation, and TEMPO-mediated oxidation are used in this study. The structure and antimicrobial activity of the new BC/chitin nanoparticles biocomposites are investigated.
Production of bacterial cellulose tubes with Gluconacetobacter xylinus by a novel method Michael Hofinger1 , M.Sc., Bioregeneration GmbH, Eichenstrae 15, Neuried, Bavaria, 82061, Germany , 017664159008, +49 89 327 29174, hofinger@bioregeneration.com
Bacterial cellulose shows great promise for applications in the biomedical area. The biopolymer is non-degradable, can be steam sterilized and was shown to be highly biocompatible. Due to low thrombogenicity and high mechanical stability, bacterial cellulose tubes may even be suitable for small diameter blood vessel replacement. We present a novel method utilizing Gluconacetobacter xylinus to produce bacterial cellulose tubes in a reliable and reproducible way. The produced tubes show high mechanical stability. The radial stress at break and the suture pull out strength where evaluated. Tubes were shown to be homogeneous over the length. The wall of the tubes was shown to consist of radially spaced layers, thus providing a high safety margin against burst. Preliminary animal experiments were conducted in pigs. Tubes replaced a part of the arteria mesenterica superior.
Development of cellulose based biointerface for diagnostic and affinity filtration applications Hannes Orelma1 , Researcher, M.Sc. (Tech.), Aalto University, Department of Forest Products Technology, Vuorimiehentie 1, Espoo, Uusimaa, 00076, Finland , +358-50-344-1074, hannes.orelma@aalto.fi
The objective of this study was to develop new strategies for the controlled attachment of antibodies on cellulose and to optimize the surface properties for minimized non-specific binding of target molecules. The surface modification of cellulose was performed by using polysaccharide adsorption and/or chemical functionalization. Consequent attachment of antibodies was achieved either by directly conjugating them onto the functionalized cellulose or by using a specific linker protein that allowed for chemical free attachment strategy. For example, antibodies such as monoclonal anti-hemoglobin and polyclonal anti-human IgG were irreversibly attached to cellulose. Developed platforms were found to be effective on detecting specific antigens with reduced non-specific binding. XPS, QCM-D, SPR and AFM were used to characterize the main chemical, swelling and morphological features of the produced, novel biointerfaces based on the associated, derivatized cellulosic materials. Main results and possible applications for such systems will be discussed.
Bio-inspired mechanically adaptive polymer nanocomposites for biomedical implants Christoph Weder1 , PhD, University of Fribourg, Adolphe Merkle Institute, Rue de l'Ancienne Papeterie, Marly, FR, 1723, Switzerland , ++41 26 300 9465, christoph.weder@unifr.ch
With the objective to create mechanically adaptive implants, which are sufficiently rigid to allow implantation, but soften thereafter to match the stiffness of their environment, we developed a family of mechanically adaptive polymer nanocomposites. These materials are inspired by the architecture and function of the skin of sea cucumbers, which can change its stiffness on command. Our artificial nanocomposites adopt the architecture of this adaptive tissue and are comprised of soft polymer matrices and rigid cellulose nanofibers. The interactions between the nanofibers are mediated by exposure to water, which causes a dramatic modulus reduction. The new materials were used to probe the hypothesis that the formation of a glial scar, which has been identified as a problem for cortical interfacing, is related to the mechanical mismatch between the soft brain tissue and rigid cortical implants. The fabrication of implants and the results of first in-vivo studies are reported.
Cellulose based scaffolds for cartilage tissue engineering Sameer S Rahatekar1 , Dr, University of Bristol, Advanced Composite Centre for Innovation & Science, Queens Building, University Walk, Bristol, Bristol, United Kingdom , 0044 777 261 5154, sameer.rahatekar@bristol.ac.uk
Cellulose is the most abundant, biocompatible polymer with low immune response. Unlike synthetic polymers, the degraded products of cellulose scaffolds are not likely to damage the tissues during regeneration. In the present work, we have studied the use of cellulose scaffold for growth of adult stem cells for cartilage tissue engineering. Cellulose scaffolds with varying mechanical properties were used to test their ability to support adult stem cells growth and differentiation. These scaffolds were analysed for levels of viable cell adhesion, and production of various differentiation
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Public release date: 25-Mar-2012
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